Glossary of Terms
This compendium of terms is provided to broaden the lay person’s understanding of some of the relative concepts and language related to the field of Neurofeedback. The term "Neurofeedback" can be used interchangeably with EEG Neurotherapy, EEG Neurofeedback, Neurofeedback, and EEG Biofeedback, as well as Biofeedback.
Alpha-Theta
A specialized Neurofeedback protocol intended to address stress resulting from issues such as chronic trauma, pain and more. This process is also referred to as the “Peniston protocol,” so named after the work of researchers Peniston and Kulkosky, who successfully used alpha-theta brain-wave training to increase the amount and amplitude of subjects’ alpha and theta brain waves.
Arousal and Performance Curve
Brain activity can be considered in terms of states of arousal. Optimum performance can be achieved by maintaining a state of normalized arousal; a relaxed alertness sometimes described by peak performers as a “flow state.” Neurofeedback provides continuous feedback to the brain, conditioning it to operate at its ideal arousal state so that optimum relaxation may follow.
Biofeedback
A technique in which an individual learns to consciously control involuntary physiological responses such as heart rate, muscle contractions, persperation, body temperature, blood circulation, brain wave activity, etc. for purposes of relaxation and stress reduction. The process makes use of technology to relay visual, auditory, or tactile signals. These responses are electronically monitored and noted through feedback by way of auditory signals, and/or visual graphs on a computer screen. These are seen and heard by the participant, and through repeated exposure over time, a person can learn to better control their own physiological regulation. Common types of biofeedback include Neurofeedback, galvanic skin reposonse (GSR), heart rate variability (HRV), muscle contraction potentials (EMG), electrodermal activity or skin conductance (SCR), etc. Though all biofeedback technology makes use of electronic sensors of one kind or another, NO electricity ever goes into the subject. This is true of all types of biofeedback, including Neurofeedback.
Brain Cells
The brain is made up of two broad classes of cells: neurons and glial cells. Neurons are nerve cells and typically consist of dendrites that receive information, a cell body, and an axon used to transmit information throughout the nervous system. Glial cells have multiple functions, which include structurally supporting neurons, repairing the Central Nervous System, and regulating the biochemical balance of the brain. Pyramidal cells are neurons found in the cerebral cortex. These are responsible for the generation of EEG signals. The voltage volume generated by pyramidal cells is weak: only 20 to 100 microvolts after amplification on the order of ten thousand times.
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Brain Hemispheres
Research has shown that specific functions of thought are allocated in two distinct hemispheres in the brain, respectively the right and left, separated by a thick fold extending from front to back. The hemispheres are joined at the base of the brain by a bundle of nerves called the corpus callosum. The left side of our body is "wired" to the right side of our brain, and vice versa. Specific aptitudes, traits and behaviors are associated with one hemisphere or the other. This is true for an estimated 70 to 95% of the population. Neurofeedback protocols are designed to train right and left hemispheres interhemispherically, unihemispherically, or both, for purposes of greater physiological relaxation only. Most researchers accept the following general hemispheric attributes:
Brain Lobes
 The brain has 4 distinct lobes:
- The frontal lobe contains the pre-frontal, pre-motor and motor areas. The pre-frontal cortex is involved with decision-making and planning and has an inhibitory influence on impulses and actions. The pre-motor and motor cortices process and transmit body movement information.
- The parietal lobe relays tactile sensations and/or pain, plays a key role in how we orient ourselves in space socially and physically, and is also involved with information processing.
- The temporal lobe regulates auditory processing, memory, physiological processes and mood.
- The occipital lobe is where visual information from the eyes is processed.
Brain Maps
Some clinicians provide an abbreviated qEEg or “mini” Brain Map using EEG measured at 6 to 8 or more sites. Brain Maps that are not analyzed in terms of a normative database provide very limited statistical information. See qEEG also.
Brainwave Frequencies
Frequency refers to the rate at which a brainwave or EEG signal is changing or vibrating. EEG frequency is measured in cycles per second. Exact frequency ranges used for EEG training vary with the practitioner and protocol. EEG signals have extremely low electrical voltage that can be recorded from the brain through the scalp. These electrical traces occur at varying frequencies and are measured in hertz (Hz).
- Delta (0-3 Hz) Sleepy, Foggy
- Theta (4-7 Hz) Daydreaming
- Alpha (8-11 Hz) Relaxed, Idling
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 SMR (12-15 Hz) Calm Focus
- Beta (15-18 Hz) Alert Focus
- Hi Beta (19-35 Hz) Anxiousness
Cerebral Cortex
 The cortex is the outer-most layer of the brain, consisting of enfolded layers. The human neocortex is the most recent brain development, consisting of the frontal, temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes (see “Brain Lobes”). The cortex layer closest to the skull is where EEG signals are detected. The cortex is the outer-most layer of the brain, consisting of enfolded layers. The human neocortex is the most recent brain development, consisting of the frontal, temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes (see “Brain Lobes”). The cortex layer closest to the skull is where EEG signals are detected. The cortex consists in part of Grey Matter (neurons and their unmyelinated axons). Below the cortex can be found White Matter (long myelinated axons situated between the brainstem and cerebellum.
Cognitive Testing
Assessment and measurement of brain and/or personality function is administered by la licensed clinician. Continuous performance tests (see TOVA ®) are used to monitor and measure attention and performance. Other tests measure cognitive efficacy and memory. Screenings for obtuse visual problems may be offered, and referrals for other professional help provided. other testing may include Quantitative measurement of EEG that employs statistical analysis (see qEEG). Cognitive testing may also be performed using valid or reliable instruments in the form of questionnaires. Such commonly used tests include, but are not limited to, Thompson’s Depression Scale, Amen’s ADD/HD Scale, and MBTI, to name a few.
EEG
EEG, or Electroencephalogram is a recording of neuronal activity (brain waves) using electrodes placed on the scalp to monitor electrical impulses generated by pyramidal brain cells found in the cerebral cortex. The recorded traces are a representation of real-time brainwave activities. Electrical activity in the human brain was first measured more than 60 years ago. Brainwaves are produced by many neurons firing at the same time --- and how often that firing occurs determines the activity's frequency or wavelength, which is measured in hertz, or cycles per second. Typically, Neurologists have used EEG to monitor consciousness in patients with traumatic injuries, and in studies of epilepsy and sleep.
EEG Pyramidal nerve cells typically consist of a six-layered cell body, dendrites and an axon. When multiple electrodes are placed on the cranium and recordings are analyzed by comparing recorded activities to a quantized normative data base the EEG recording is referred to as a qEEG (see detailed explanation below).
Galvanic Skin Response (GSR) Biofeedback
Galvanic skin response (GSR), also known as electrodermal response (EDR) or psychogalvanic reflex (PGR), is a method of measuring the electrical resistance of the skin and interpreting it as an image of activity in certain parts of the body. Changes in the electrical properties of the skin in response to stress or anxiety can be measured either by recording the electrical resistance of the skin or by recording weak currents generated by the body. Stress thermometers are a less sophisticated version used to teach hand-warming technique. All of these yield feedback (information) used to teach individuals to better control stress.
Heart Rate Variability (HRV) Biofeedback
The analysis of heart rate variability (HRV), or heart rhythms, is a noninvasive means of measuring heart–brain and autonomic nervous system dynamics as influenced by one’s emotional state. Clinical research indicates HRV as a primary indicator of neurocardiac fitness and overall health. Abnormally low HRV is a predictor of premature mortality and is associated with a wide range of health problems, many of which are stress-related. By influencing shifts in heart rhythms, one can positively lower stress levels, and thereby influence neural, hormonal and biochemical responses, yielding improvements in blood pressure, immune system function and so on. Effects may be both immediate and long-lasting.
Hemoencephalography (HEG)
Neurofeedback procedure using an infrared photoelectric cell placed on the scalp that allows the user to modulate brain oxygenation and increase blood flow (perfusion) to the brain for purposes of relaxation only. Two types are currently in use: Near Infrared (nIR HEG) and Passive Infrared ( pIR HEG), and can be used in conjunction with other Neurofeedback training.
Hemoencephalography neurofeedback has been successfully utilized to improve relaxation in patients with a wide range of stress-related conditions (Toomim, 2004). Both HEG systems have been used to decrease stress levels. pIR has been used for pain issues related to migraines, and nIR has been used for attention issues.
The pIR or passive infrared headband measures the infrared temperature at the skull under the headband sensor, an infrared thermometer. It is passive in the same sense that EEG electrodes are. It measures but introduces no signals of its own to the brain.
The nIR or near infrared headband operates from the principle that more highly oxygenated blood is redder in color. It sends pulses of red and infrared light through the skull to the cortex beneath (the skull is not opaque, but rather, is translucent). By measuring the amount of red compared to infrared light that is reflected back by the cortex to the headband sensor, the headband can indicate how much oxygen is in an individual's blood, and therefore how relaxed they may be.
Irlen/Scotopic Syndrome
Irlen Scotopic Sensitivity Syndrome (IS) is a sensitivity to light, particularly fluorescent light, that can seriously interfere with reading and written language. It can lower test scores and significantly impact a person's ability to function in school and work situations, and can co-exist with learning disabilities, attention deficit disorder, sensory processing issues and some behavioral disorders.
Individuals with Irlen Syndrome put more energy and effort into the reading process because they see the printed page differently from the proficient reader. Constant adaptation to distortions from the print or from the white background cause fatigue and discomfort and, more importantly, limits the length of time these individuals can read and maintain comprehension. Symptoms range from subtle to severe.
Irlen Syndrome cannot be diagnosed using the standard educational, psycho-educational or speech and language testing or standard vision screening. Fortunately this syndrome can be detected by a certified and trained screener, and referrals to a developmental optometrist may be made where appropriate. The use of colored film overlays may also correct reading deficits in some cases, and may also be helpful with dyslexia and other reading and/or math deficits, as well as sensory processing deficits. To learn more about this visit the Irlen Institute website.
LENS Neurotherapy
LENS, or Low Energy Neurofeedback System, is a type of Neurofeedback that uses a very low power electromagnetic field, like the ones that surround digital watches and wires in the wall, to carry feedback to the person receiving it. It can be used in conjunction with other Neurofeedback interventions.
Microcurrent Electrotherapy Stimulation
Referred to as MENS; a pocket-sized technology that emits a sub-sensory current that acts on the body’s naturally occurring electrical impulses to decrease pain and facilitate the healing process. An example of a microcurrent electrical stimulation device is the Alpha-Stim, used to reduce stress levels related to anxiety, depression, insomnia, headaches, and acute, chronic, and postoperative pain. This is an affordable technology that works well with Neurofeedback.
Music-Based Brain Stimulation
The auditory nerve travels from the brain through every major organ in the body. Therefore, auditory perception greatly influences physiological functioning. Advanced technologies such as The Listening Program ® can provide individuals with solutions to many auditory based challenges. Authorized providers administer a customized program, monitor progress and offer listening guidance.
Neurofeedback
Neurofeedback is synonymous with a number of terms: EEG Neurotherapy, EEG Neurofeedback, Neurofeedback, EEG Biofeedback (EBF), Baud Assisted Neurofeedback and Biofeedback.
Basic premises of Neurofeedback:
- The brain has measurable electrical activity known as EEG
- When the brain works better, the Central Nervous System may benefit
Neuroplasticity
The brain is 'plastic' and 'malleable' and therefore can change. This phenomenon is also known as cortical re-mapping; the ability of the human brain to change as a result of one's experience. The brain can do this because of nerve cells or "neurons" that are interconnected (neural networks), and that enable learning by forming new cells (neurogenesis). "Brain Plasticity" refers to learning by adding or removing neural connections, or adding cells. Exercise and socialization contribute greatly to the brain’s ability to generate new cells, form neural networks and better communicate and self-regulate. Neurofeedback may also increase Neuroplasticity.
Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters are chemicals that relay, amplify and modulate electrical signals between a neuron and another cell. Some neurotransmitters generally impact the Central Nervous System, others have specialized effects on the Autonomic Nervous System, and still others are used in brain regions by particular classes of nerve cells. Some common neurotransmitters include dopamine, acetylcholine, serotonin and norepinephrine.
Neutraceuticals
The term "neutraceutical" was coined from the terms "nutrition" and "pharmaceutical" in 1989 by Stephen DeFelice. Also referred to as “phytochemicals” (functional foods), neutraceuticals are natural, bioactive chemical compounds that have health promoting, disease preventing or medicinal properties; are pharmacy-grade nutritional supplements. These can be used under medical supervision in conjunction with Neurotherapy for maximum benefit, especially when pharmaceuticals are contraindicated or are otherwise not a desirable choice.
Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning is a process by which humans (and animals) may learn to behave in such a way as to obtain rewards. This paradigm is referenced in experimental psychology as the means by which learning and action selection processes may be replicated and studied.
In the case of Neurofeedback, the brain's measurable electrical activity (EEG) may be shaped or  conditioned through a learning strategy of repetitive reinforcement or entrainment. Therefore, operant conditioning may improve the brain’s ability to self-regulate --- may produce a healthier and more relaxed overall brain state. This premise is based on the idea that 1) neural network functions are highly integrated and accessible through EEG, and that 2) neural networks are apparently alterable/trainable through a reinforcement strategy of applied EEG parameters. Thus, repetition of reinforcement in the domains of frequency and timing of brain function may lead to a learned response of improved function, i.e., improved overall neuro-plasticity. Improved function and plasticity may also be self-reinforcing.
Peak Performance Training
See Arousal and Performance Curve. Athletes, musicians, performers, writers, scholars and executives have all benefited from this unique form of training. Protocols for developing performance output vary among providers, and may include Neurofeedback training, coaching, hypnosis, visualization, meditative techniques and other technological reinforcements. These may assist with improved performance, increased endurance and the ability to experience a state of “flow” on demand --- a heightened sense of concentration and focus with complete relaxation. Click the link to see an article on EEG Neurofeedback training for Peak Performance.
Protocol
An pre-determined application of the Neurofeedback process for purposes of relaxation only. Protocols are also referred to as "montages".
Pulsed Magnetic Field Therapy
Also referred to as PEMF and Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Simulation or rTMS, when applied to the cranium. The use of magnetic fields (MF) produced by both static (permanent) and time-varied (most commonly, pulsed) magnetic fields are related technologies. These devices may possibly have a favorable impact on functional deficits experienced as a result of conditions such as Multiple Sclerosis, Fibromyalgia, rheumatic conditions, migraine headaches and other pain conditions. The technology may also prove to be useful for improving states of sadness, deepening meditation, assisting with sleeplessness, and improving mental focus. The devices are still considered experimental but medical research is being conducted to establish efficacy.
qEEG
Quantitative Electroencephalograph (qEEG) is the measurement of transient electrical patterns at the surface of the scalp, which primarily reflect cortical activity or "brainwaves."
 qEEG uses multiple electrodes at 19 or more sites to yield a comprehensive recording of brainwave activity that is analyzed relative to a normative database and converted by a computer to a topographic colorful brain map. The qEEG is not intended to be a "stand alone" diagnostic, but no other brain imaging technique is as fast or non-invasive, and it is often recommended for clients with brain injury or developmental disorders to assist in determining an optimum protocol for treatment.
Some clinicians require a quantitative analysis of clinical EEG or qEEG, with a written report and interpretation before administering Neurofeedback training, while others do not. No data exists indicating traditional q-EEG based training is any more or less efficacious then other protocols.
Some providers administer an abbreviated qEEG or “mini” Brain Map using EEG measured at 6 to 12 or more sites. A mini Brain Map is only valid if compared with a normative database. The mini-qEEG is a good estimate of the full qEEG, though it is not a replacement.
Roshi
Roshi is a form EDF (Electroencephalographic Disentrainment Feedback) used for relaxation purposes only; a type of brainwave entrainment utilizing variable light and/or magnetic stimulation to disentrain or "reset" the brain’s activity to a more desired state. The technology makes use of complex adaptive audio visual stimulation (AVS) or electro magnetic stimulation (EMS) coupled with EEG neurofeedback that can be set so that the frequency varies according to the trainee's existing dominant brainwaves. Roshi is used for stress and performance management.
Sensors
Also referred to as electrodes. These are manufactured in a variety of shapes, materials and sizes. Neurofeedback trainers may use tiny (approximately 10 mm in diameter) precious metal discs for maximum conductivity of EEG. These look somewhat like a miniature flat frying pan that is attached to a very thin wire. The wire conveys the brain’s EEG signals to an EEG amplifier (the voltage volume generated from the neurons in the cortical layer are too weak to use otherwise; amounting to only 20 to 100 microvolts even after amplification on the order of ten thousand times). The sensors are appended to the scalp using an unnoticeable, water-soluble saline paste that can be easily wiped away with a quick dab at the end of the treatment. Typically only 3 to 5 sensors are used at any one time for Neurofeedback training.
Ten -Twenty (10-20) System
A standardized international system developed to describe locations for placement of electrodes on the human skull in order to perform consistent testing for EEG recordings. Each point indicates a possible electrode position. Each site has a letter (to identify the lobe) and a number or another letter to identify the hemisphere location. The letters F, T, C, P, and O stand for Frontal, Temporal, Central, Parietal and Occipital.
TOVA ®
The T.O.V.A.® (Test of Variables of Attention or TOVA) is the most extensively used valid continuous performance test available and provides accurate, objective and cost-effective data for screening, diagnostic and treatment monitoring of ADHD, OCD and other conditions. The tool was originally developed to help psychiatrists determine readiness for cessation of prescribed medications. In relation to Neurofeedback training, a TOVA typically is administered by a licensed clinician at the beginning of training to establish a baseline from which to monitor performance improvement. TOVA was originally developed to titrate medications, and can be used to assist in such with prescribing physician oversight when appropriate. A second TOVA may be administered after 20 or 40 training sessions.
Transcranial Doppler (TCD)
Commonly referred to as "the physician's stethoscope for the brain", TCD is a reliable non-invasive, ultrasonic examination of intracranial hemodynamics that provides a quantitative, data-based, safe, readily available, diagnostic measure to aid in guiding treatment plans for individuals who may be at risk for cerebral ischemia, emboli (TIA/stroke), migraines, vascular dementia, brain injury, and more. Neurovascular assessments are more cost-effective, painless, fast, and efficient, compared to other neurodiagnostic procedures.
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